Everything about Mauryan Empire totally explained
The
Maurya Empire (
322–
185 BCE), ruled by the
Mauryan dynasty, was a geographically extensive and
powerful political and military
empire in
ancient India.
Originating from the kingdom of
Magadha in the
Indo-Gangetic plains (modern
Bihar and
Bengal) in the eastern side of the sub-continent, the empire had its capital city at
Pataliputra (near modern
Patna). The Empire was founded in
322 BCE by
Chandragupta Maurya, who had overthrown the
Nanda Dynasty and began rapidly expanding his power westwards across central and western
India taking advantage of the disruptions of local
powers in the wake of the withdrawal westward by
Alexander the Great's Macedonian and Persian armies. By
316 BCE the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander.
At its greatest extent, the Empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the
Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now
Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern
Pakistan and significant portions of what is now
Afghanistan, including the modern
Herat and
Kandahar provinces and
Sistan and Baluchestan Province in
Iran. The Empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by Emperor
Bindusara, but it excluded a small portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near
Kalinga.
The Mauryan Empire was perhaps the largest empire to rule the Indian subcontinent. Its decline began fifty years after Ashoka's rule ended, and it dissolved in
185 BCE with the foundation of the
Sunga Dynasty in Magadha.
Under
Chandragupta, the Mauryan Empire conquered the trans-Indus region, which was under Macedonian rule. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by
Seleucus I, a Greek general from Alexander's army. Under Chandragupta and his successors, both internal and external trade, and agriculture and economic activities, all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single and efficient system of finance, administration and security. After the
Kalinga War, the Empire experienced half a century of peace and security under Ashoka: India was a prosperous and stable empire of great economic and military power whose political influence and trade extended across Western and Central Asia and Europe. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of
Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of
Buddhism was the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across all of India. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into
Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia and Mediterranean Europe.
Chandragupta's minister
Kautilya Chanakya wrote the
Arthashastra, one of the greatest treatises on
economics, politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war, and religion ever produced in the East. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The
Arthashastra and the
Edicts of Ashoka are primary sources of written records of the Mauryan times. The Mauryan empire is considered one of the most significant periods in Indian history. The
Lion Capital of Asoka at
Sarnath, is the
emblem of India.
Background
Alexander set up a Macedonian garrison and
satrapies (vassal states) in the trans-Indus region of modern day
Pakistan, ruled previously by kings
Ambhi of
Taxila and
Porus of
Pauravas (modern day
Jhelum).
Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya
Following Alexander's advance into the
Punjab, a
brahmin named
Chanakya (real name Vishnugupt, also known as Kautilya) traveled to
Magadha, a kingdom that was large and militarily-powerful and feared by its neighbors, but was dismissed by its king Dhana, of the
Nanda Dynasty. However, the prospect of battling Magadha deterred Alexander's troops from going further east: he returned to
Babylon, and re-deployed most of his troops west of the
Indus river. When Alexander died in
Babylon, soon after in
323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and local kings declared their independence, leaving several smaller satraps in a disunited state. Chandragupta Maurya deposed Dhana. The Greek generals
Eudemus, and
Peithon, ruled until around
316 BCE, when Chandragupta Maurya (with the help of Chanakya, who was now his advisor) surprised and defeated the Macedonians and consolidated the region under the control of his new seat of power in Magadha.
Chandragupta Maurya's rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On the one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama
Mudrarakshasa (
Poem of Rakshasa -
Rakshasa was the prime minister of Magadha) by Visakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A
kshatriya tribe known as the
Maurya's are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts,
Mahaparinibbana Sutta. However, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as "
Sandrokottos". As a young man he's said to have met Alexander. He is also said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, and made a narrow escape. Chanakya's original intentions were to train a guerilla army under Chandragupta's command. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, sometimes identified with Porus (John Marshall "Taxila", p18, and al.) This Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite and powerful army made up of Yavanas (Greeks), Kambojas, Shakas (Scythians), Kiratas (Nepalese), Parasikas (Persians) and Bahlikas (Bactrians) .
With the help of these frontier martial tribes from Central Asia, Chandragupta was able to defeat the Nanda/Nandin rulers of Magadha and found the powerful Maurya empire in northern India.
Conquest of Magadha
Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta and his army to take over the throne of Magadha. Using his intelligence network, Chandragupta gathered many young men from across Magadha and other provinces, men upset over the corrupt and oppressive rule of king Dhana, plus resources necessary for his army to fight a long series of battles. These men included the former general of Taxila, other accomplished students of Chanakya, the representative of King Porus of Kakayee, his son Malayketu, and the rulers of small states.
Preparing to invade Pataliputra, Maurya hatched a plan. A battle was announced and the Magadhan army was drawn from the city to a distant battlefield to engage Maurya's forces. Maurya's general and spies meanwhile bribed the corrupt general of Nanda. He also managed to create an atmosphere of civil war in the kingdom, which culminated in the death of the heir to the throne. Chanakya managed to win over popular sentiment. Ultimately Nanda resigned, handing power to Chandragupta, and went into exile and was never heard of again. Chanakya contacted the prime minister, Rakshasas, and made him understand that his loyalty was to Magadha, not to the Magadha dynasty, insisting that he continue in office. Chanakya also reiterated that choosing to resist would start a war that would severely affect Magadha and destroy the city. Rakshasa accepted Chanakya's reasoning, and Chandragupta Maurya was legitimately installed as the new King of Magadha. Rakshasa became Chandragupta's chief advisor, and Chanakya assumed the position of an elder statesman.
Image:Magadha.GIF|The approximate extent of the Magadha state in the 5th century BCE.
Image:Nanda Empire.gif|The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent under Dhana Nanda circa 323 BCE.
Image:Chandragupta Empire 320 BC.gif|The Maurya Empire when it was first founded by Chandragupta Maurya circa 320 BCE, after conquering the Nanda Empire when he was only about 20 years old.
Image:Chandragupta mauryan empire 305 BC.gif|Chandragupta extended the borders of the Maurya Empire towards Seleucid Persia after defeating Seleucus circa 305 BCE.
Image:Chandragupta Maurya Empire.gif|Chandragupta extended the borders of the empire southward into the Deccan Plateau circa 300 BC.
Image:Mauryan Empire Map.gif|Ashoka the Great extended into Kalinga during the Kalinga War circa 265 BCE, and established superiority over the southern kingdoms.
Building India's First Empire
Having become the king of one of India's most powerful states, Chandragupta invaded the Punjab. One of Alexander's richest satraps,
Peithon, satrap of
Media, had tried to raise a coalition against him. Chandragupta managed to conquer the Punjab capital of Taxila, an important centre of trade and Hellenistic culture, increasing his power and consolidating his control.
Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta was again in conflict with the Greeks when
Seleucus I, ruler of the
Seleucid Empire, tried to reconquer the northwestern parts of India, during a campaign in
305 BCE, but failed. The two rulers finally concluded a peace treaty: a marital treaty (
Epigamia) was concluded, implying either a marital alliance between the two dynastic lines or a recognition of marriage between Greeks and Indians, Chandragupta received the satrapies of
Paropamisadae (
Kamboja and
Gandhara),
Arachosia (
Kandhahar) and
Gedrosia (
Balochistan), and
Seleucus I received 500
war elephants that were to have a decisive role in his victory against western
Hellenistic kings at the
Battle of Ipsus in
301 BCE. Diplomatic relations were established and several Greeks, such as the historian
Megasthenes,
Deimakos and
Dionysius resided at the Mauryan court.
Chandragupta established a strong centralized state with a complex administration at Pataliputra, which, according to Megasthenes, was
"surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers— (and) rivaled the splendors of contemporaneous Persian sites such as Susa and Ecbatana." Chandragupta's son
Bindusara extended the rule of the Mauryan empire towards southern India. He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, named
Deimachus (
Strabo 1–70).
Megasthenes describes a disciplined multitude under Chandragupta, who live simply, honestly, and don't know writing:
» " The Indians all live frugally, especially when in camp. They dislike a great undisciplined multitude, and consequently they observe good order. Theft is of very rare occurrence. Megasthenes says that those who were in the camp of Sandrakottos, wherein lay 400,000 men, found that the thefts reported on any one day didn't exceed the value of two hundred drachmae, and this among a people who have no written laws, but are ignorant of writing, and must therefore in all the business of life trust to memory. They live, nevertheless, happily enough, being simple in their manners and frugal. They never drink wine except at sacrifices. Their beverage is a liquor composed from rice instead of barley, and their food is principally a rice-pottage." Strabo XV. i. 53-56, quoting Megasthenes
Bindusara
Chandragupta died after a reign for 24 years and was succeeded by his son, Bindusara, also known as Amitrochates (destroyer of foes) in Greek accounts, around 298 BCE. Details are scarce regarding Bindusara; however, the incorporation of southern peninsular India is sometimes credited to him. According to Jain tradition, his mother was a woman by the name of Durdhara. The Puranas assign him a reign of 25 years. He has been identified with the Indian title Amitraghata (slayer of Enemies), found in Greek texts as Amitrochates.
Ashoka the Great
Chandragupta's grandson
Ashokavardhan Maurya, better known as
Ashoka the Great (ruled
273-
232 BCE), is considered by contemporary historians to be perhaps the greatest of Indian monarchs, and perhaps the world. H.G. Wells calls him the "greatest of kings".
As a young prince, Ashoka was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain and Taxila. As monarch he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empire's superiority in southern and western India. But it was his conquest of
Kalinga which proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Although Ashoka's army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and civilian units, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare, including over 10,000 of Ashoka's own men. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse, and he cried 'what have I done?'. Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings of
Gautama Buddha, and renounced war and violence. For a monarch in ancient times, this was an historic feat.
Ashoka implemented principles of
ahimsa by banning hunting and violent sports activity and ending indentured and forced labor (many thousands of people in war-ravaged Kalinga had been forced into hard labor and servitude). While he maintained a large and powerful army, to keep the peace and maintain authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook a massive public works building campaign across the country. Over 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity made Ashoka one of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an idealized figure of inspiration in modern India.
The
Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent. Ranging from as far west as
Afghanistan and as far south as Andhra (
Nellore District), Ashoka's edicts state his policies and accomplishments. Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were written in
Greek, and one in both Greek and
Aramaic. Ashoka's edicts refer to the Greeks,
Kambojas, and
Gandharas as peoples forming a frontier region of his empire. They also attest to Ashoka's having sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts precisely name each of the rulers of the
Hellenic world at the time such as
Amtiyoko (
Antiochus),
Tulamaya (
Ptolemy),
Amtikini (
Antigonos),
Maka (
Magas) and
Alikasudaro (
Alexander) as recipients of Ashoka's proselytism. The Edicts also accurately locate their territory "600 yojanas away" (a yojanas being about 7 miles), corresponding to the distance between the center of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles).
Administration
The Empire was divided into four provinces, with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial capitals are Tosali (in the east),
Ujjain in the west, Suvarnagiri (in the south), and
Taxila (in the north). The head of the provincial administration was the
Kumara (royal prince), who governed the provinces as king's representative. The
kumara was assisted by Mahamatyas and council of ministers. This organizational structure was reflected at the imperial level with the Emperor and his
Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers).
Historians theorize that the organization of the Empire was in line with the extensive bureaucracy described by
Kautilya in the
Arthashastra: a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. The expansion and defense of the empire was made possible by what appears to have been the largest standing army of its time. According to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants. A vast
espionage system collected intelligence for both internal and external security purposes. Having renounced offensive warfare and expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless continued to maintain this large army, to protect the Empire and instill stability and peace across West and South Asia.
Economy
For the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security allowed for a common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity. The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to a disciplined central authority. Farmers were freed of tax and crop collection burdens from regional kings, paying instead to a nationally-administered and strict-but-fair system of taxation as advised by the principles in the
Arthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and a network of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided justice and security for merchants, farmers and traders. The Mauryan army wiped out many gangs of bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains who sought to impose their own supremacy in small areas. Although regimental in revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored many public works and waterways to enhance productivity, while internal trade in India expanded greatly due to newfound political unity and internal peace.
Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashoka's reign, an international network of trade expanded. The
Khyber Pass, on the modern boundary of
Pakistan and
Afghanistan, became a strategically-important port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade also extended through the
Malay peninsula into Southeast Asia. India's exports included silk goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods. The Empire was enriched further with an exchange of scientific knowledge and technology with Europe and West Asia. Ashoka also sponsored the construction of thousands of roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses and other public works. The easing of many overly-rigorous administrative practices, including those regarding taxation and crop collection, helped increase productivity and economic activity across the Empire.
In many ways, the economic situation in the Maurya Empire is comparable to the Roman Empire several centuries later, which both had extensive trade connections and both had organizations similar to
corporations. While Rome had organizational entities which were largely used for public state-driven projects, Mauryan India had numerous private commercial entities which existed purely for private commerce. This was due to the Mauryas having to contend with pre-existing private commercial entities hence they were more concerned about keeping the support of these pre-existing organizations, while the Romans didn't have such pre-existing entities to contend with hence they were able to prevent such entities from developing. (See also
Economic history of India.)
Religion
Jainism
Emperor Chandragupta Maurya became the first major Indian monarch to initiate a religious transformation at the highest level when he embraced
Jainism, a religious movement resented by orthodox Hindu priests who usually attended the imperial court. At an older age, Chandragupta renounced his throne and material possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks. Chandragupta was a disciple of
Acharya Bhadrabahu. It is said that in his last days, he observed the rigorous but self purifying
Jain ritual of
santhara for example fast unto death, at
Shravan Belagola in
Karnatka.However, his successor, Emperor Bindusara, preserved Hindu traditions and distanced himself from Jain and Buddhist movements.
Samprati, the grandson of
Ashoka also embraced
Jainism. Samrat Samprati was influenced by the teachings of Jain monk
Arya Suhasti Suri and he's known to have built 1,25,000
Jain Temples across India. Some of them are still found in towns of Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain & Palitana. It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent messengers & preachers to Greece, Persia & middle-east for the spread of Jainism. But till date no research has been done in this area.
Thus, Jainism became a vital force under the Mauryan Rule.
Chandragupta &
Samprati, are credited for spread of
Jainism in
Southern India. Lakhs of
Jain Temples &
Jain Stupas were erected during their reign. But due to lack of royal patronage & its strict principles, along with rise of Shankaracharya & Ramanujacharya,
Jainism,once the major religion of southern India, declined.
Buddhism
But when Ashoka embraced Buddhism, following the Kalinga War, he renounced expansionism and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of the
Arthashastra on the use of force, intensive policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection and against rebels. Ashoka sent a mission led by his son and daughter to
Sri Lanka, whose king Tissa was so charmed with Buddhist ideals that he adopted them himself and made Buddhism the state religion. Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions to West Asia, Greece and South East Asia, and commissioned the construction of monasteries, schools and publication of Buddhist literature across the empire. He is believed to have built as many as 84,000 stupas across India, and he increased the popularity of Buddhism in Afghanistan. Ashoka helped convene the
Third Buddhist Council of India and South Asia's Buddhist orders, near his capital, a council that undertook much work of reform and expansion of the Buddhist religion.
Hinduism
While himself a Buddhist, Ashoka retained the membership of Hindu priests and ministers in his court, and he maintained religious freedom and tolerance although the Buddhist faith grew in popularity with his patronage. Indian society began embracing the philosophy of
ahimsa, and given the increased prosperity and improved law enforcement, crime and internal conflicts reduced dramatically. Also greatly discouraged was the
caste system and orthodox discrimination, as
Hinduism began to absorb the ideals and values of Jain and Buddhist teachings. Social freedom began expanding in an age of peace and prosperity.
Architectural remains
Architectural remains of the Maurya period are rather few. Remains of a
hypostyle building with about 80 columns of a height of about 10 meters have been found in Kumrahâr near
Patna, and is one of the very few site that has been connected to the rule of the Mauryas in that city. The style is rather reminiscent of Persian Achaemenid architecture.
The grottoes of Barâbar are another example of Mauryan architecture, especially the decorated front of the Lomas Rishi grotto. These were offered by the Mauryas to the Buddhist sect of the
Ajivikas.
The most widespread example of Maurya architecture are the
Pillars of Ashoka, often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the sub-continent.
Natural history in the times of the Mauryas
The protection of animals in India became serious business by the time of the Maurya dynasty; being the first empire to provide a unified political entity in India, the attitude of the Mauryas towards forests, its denizens and fauna in general is of interest.
The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as a resource. For them, the most important forest product was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only upon horses and men but also battle-elephants; these played a role in the defeat of
Seleucus,
Alexander's governor of the Punjab. The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants since it was cheaper and took less time to catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise them.
Kautilya's
Arthashastra contains not only maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies the responsibilities of officials such as the
Protector of the Elephant Forests:
Protector of Animals also worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and other predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle.
The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and instituted curbs and control measures over them. They regarded all forest tribes with distrust and controlled them with bribery and political subjugation. They employed some of them, the food-gatherers or
aranyaca to guard borders and trap animals. The sometimes tense and conflict-ridden relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire.
When
Ashoka embraced
Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt. He was perhaps the first ruler in history to advocate conservation measures for wildlife and even had rules inscribed in stone edicts. The edicts proclaim that many followed the king's example in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudly states:
Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 310 BCE)
Chandragupta ultimately occupied Northwestern India, in the territories formerly ruled by the Greeks, where he fought the satraps (described as "Prefects" in Western sources) left in place after Alexander (Justin), among whom may have been
Eudemus, ruler in the western Punjab until his departure in
317 BCE or
Peithon, son of Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure for
Babylon in
316 BCE.
» "India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his prefects, as if shaking the burden of servitude. The author of this liberation was Sandracottos, but he'd transformed liberation in servitude after victory, since, after taking the throne, he himself oppressed the very people he's liberated from foreign domination" Justin XV.4.12-13
» "Later, as he was preparing war against the prefects of Alexander, a huge wild elephant went to him and took him on his back as if tame, and he became a remarkable fighter and war leader. Having thus acquired royal power, Sandracottos possessed India at the time Seleucos was preparing future glory." Justin XV.4.19
Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE)
Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian
satrap of the
Asian portion of Alexander's former empire, conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus (
Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until in 305 BCE he entered in a confrontation with Chandragupta:
» "Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus."
Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55
Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it's clear that Seleucus fared poorly against the Indian Emperor as he failed in conquering any territory, and in fact, was forced to surrender much that was already his. Regardless, Seleucus and Chandragupta ultimately reached a settlement and through a treaty sealed in
305 BCE, Seleucus, according to Strabo, ceded a number of territories to Chandragupta, including southern
Afghanistan and parts of
Persia.
Accordingly, Seleucus obtained five hundred war elephants, a military asset which would play a decisive role at the
Battle of Ipsus in
301 BCE.
Marital alliance
A matrimonial alliance was also agreed upon (called
Epigamia in ancient sources, meaning either the recognition of marriage between trans-indus inhabitants and Greeks, or a dynastic alliance):
» "He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship."
Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55
It is generally thought that there was an marital alliance made between a Seleucid princess and Chandragupta, and that the Seleucid princess may have been bethrothed to the Mauryan Dynasty. This practice in itself was quite common in the Hellenistic world to formalize alliances. There is thus a possibility that some of the descendants of Chandragupta were partly of Hellenic descent, whether Chandragupta married the Seleucid princess, or his son Bindusara, and that the Maurya dynasty was considered as closely connected to the Seleucid one.
Bindusara himself, born earlier around 320 BCE, couldn't have been the result of such a union, but he may have been the one who married the Seleucid princess, just before his rise as Emperor in 298 BCE.
Although Indian sources mention him as the son of brahmin woman, the marriage arrangement has led some to suggest that Ashoka may have been a product of this union with a Seleucid princess although the general view is that Ashoka was born from a Brahmin mother who was a minor queen of
Bindusara, based on the account of the 2nd century CE
Ashokavadana ("Legend of Ashoka"). The practice of Mauryan rulers to have
harems is repeatedly mentioned in sources such as the Ashokavadana however, which would suggest a multiplicity of bloodlines and a numerous descent for each king.
At the very least, this treaty on "
Epigamia" implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians was recognized at the State level, although it's unclear whether it occurred among dynastic rulers or common people, or both.
Exchange of ambassadors
Seleucus dispatched an ambassador,
Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later
Deimakos to his son
Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at
Pataliputra (Modern
Patna in
Bihar state). Later
Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of
Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka, is also recorded by
Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named
Dionysius to the
Mauryan court.
Exchange of presents
Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various
aphrodisiacs to Seleucus:
» "And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [asto make people more amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love"
Athenaeus of Naucratis, "
The deipnosophists" Book I, chapter 32
His son
Bindusara 'Amitraghata' (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in Classical sources as having exchanged present with
Antiochus I:
» "But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, as
Aristophanes says, "There's really nothing nicer than dried figs"), that even Amitrochates, the king of the Indians, wrote to
Antiochus, entreating him (it is
Hegesander who tells this story) to buy and send him some sweet wine, and some dried figs, and a
sophist; and that Antiochus wrote to him in answer, "The dry figs and the sweet wine we'll send you; but it isn't lawful for a sophist to be sold in Greece"
Athenaeus, "
Deipnosophistae" XIV.67
Greek populations in India
Greek populations apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Ashoka's rule. In his
Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written in Greek, Ashoka describes that Greek populations within his realm converted to Buddhism:
» "Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the
Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the
Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in
Dharma."
Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika).
Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic has been discovered in
Kandahar. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this Edict, Ashoka uses the word
Eusebeia ("
Piety") as the Greek translation for the ubiquitous "
Dharma" of his other Edicts written in
Prakrit:
» "Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety (
εὐσέβεια,
Eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he's made men more pious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world. And the king abstains from (killing) living beings, and other men and those who (are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted from hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they've ceased from their intemperance as was in their power; and obedient to their father and mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past also in the future, by so acting on every occasion, that'll live better and more happily." (Trans. by G.P. Carratelli
(External Link
))
Buddhist missions to the West (c.250 BCE)
Also, in the
Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as a recipient of his
Buddhist proselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remain:
» "The conquest by
Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred
yojanas (5,400-9,600 km) away, where the Greek king
Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named
Ptolemy,
Antigonos,
Magas and
Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the
Cholas, the
Pandyas, and as far as
Tamraparni (
Sri Lanka)." (
Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika).
Ashoka also claims that he encouraged the development of
herbal medicine, for men and animals, in their territories:
» "Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's [Ashoka's] domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the
Cholas, the
Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as
Tamraparni and where the Greek king
Antiochos rules, and among the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I've had them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I've had them imported and grown. Along roads I've had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals."
2nd Rock Edict
The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as
Dharmaraksita, are described in
Pali sources as leading Greek ("
Yona") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the
Mahavamsa, XII).
Subhagsena and Antiochos III (206 BCE)
Sophagasenus was an Indian
Mauryan ruler of the 3rd century BCE, described in ancient Greek sources, and named Subhagsena or Subhashsena in
Prakrit. His name is mentionned in the list of Mauryan princes, and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a descendant of Pradyumana. He may have been a grandson of
Ashoka, or
Kunala, the son of Ashoka. He ruled an area south of the
Hindu Kush, possibly in
Gandhara.
Antiochos III, the
Seleucid king, after having made peace with
Euthydemus in
Bactria, went to India in 206 BC and is said to have renewed his friendship with the Indian king there:
» "He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he'd a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him."
Polybius 11.39
Decline
Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker kings.
Brhadrata, the last ruler of the
Mauryan dynasty, held territories that had shrunk considerably from the time of emperor
Ashoka, although he still upheld the Buddhist faith.
Sunga coup (185 BCE)
He was assassinated in
185 BCE during a military parade, by the commander-in-chief of his guard, the
Brahmin general
Pusyamitra Sunga, who then took over the throne and established the
Sunga dynasty. Buddhist records such as the
Asokavadana write that the assassination of Brhadrata and the rise of the Sunga empire led to a wave of persecution for
Buddhists, and a resurgence of
Hinduism. According to
John Marshall, Pusyamitra may have been the main author of the persecutions, although later Sunga kings seem to have been more supportive of Buddhism. Other historians, such as
Etienne Lamotte and
Romila Thapar, among others, have argued that archaeological evidence in favor of the allegations of persecution of Buddhists are lacking, and that the extent and magnitude of the atrocities have been exaggerated.
Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE)
The fall of the Mauryas left the
Khyber Pass unguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion followed. The
Greco-Bactrian king,
Demetrius, capitalized on the break-up, and he conquered southern Afghanistan and Pakistan around 180 BC, forming the
Indo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks would maintain holdings on the trans-Indus region, and make forays into central India, for about a century. Under them, Buddhism flourished, and one of their kings
Menander became a famous figure of Buddhism, he was to establish a new capital of Sagala, the modern city of
Sialkot. However, the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject to much debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they retained holdings in the subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ. Although the extent of their successes against indigenous powers such as the
Sungas,
Satavahanas, and
Kalingas are unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, renamed
Indo-Scythians, brought about the demise of the Indo-Greeks from around
70 BCE and retained lands in the trans-Indus, the region of
Mathura, and Gujarat.
The Empire To Modern Indians
Having been India's first major empire, the Maurya Empire holds a special place in the minds of Indian people: Indians feel pride to this day in recalling the great political and military power the Empire held in its day, and the spirituality and piety of Ashoka, who kept war and violence away from his people. The media in India also has produced works based upon Mauryan times:
- Chanakya (early 1990s) was a Hindi television series that depicted the life and philosophy of Kautilya Chanakya, from fighting Alexander's invasion to the coronation of Chandragupta Maurya. Directed by Dr. Chandraprakash Dwivedi starring Dr. Chandraprakash Dwivedi himself as Chanakya and Animesh Dwivedi as Chandragupta Maurya.
- Asoka (2001) is a Hindi film by Santosh Sivan starring Shahrukh Khan as the Emperor Ashoka, depicting his aggressive youth, early impetuous rule, and his transformation following the war in Kalinga. The film, however, doesn't claim that its portrayal of Ashoka's life is historically accurate.
- Chanakya Chandragupta (1977) is Telugu film by N.T. Rama Rao starring legendary actors Akkineni Nageswara Rao as Chanakya and N.T. Rama Rao as Chandragupta Maurya.
Further Information
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